Key Skill Essay Example for Free

Key Skill Essay Ensure your work is accurate and clear and is saved appropriately  You need to have achieved Key Skills 9 and 10. In addition your teacher needs to have verified that the work is both accurate and clear. This means they need to have supplied a written statement saying that the work is accurate. They cannot do this is there are any mistakes so check the work clearly. Advantages and Disadvantages of using ICT for this task  Demonstrate knowledge of how IT can help you in your work and be able to compare your use of IT with other methods  You need to write about how IT helped you to produce your presentation. This might include spell-check making sure that the words were spelt correctly, or the use of cut and paste to move objects around the page to try out different layouts.  The second part of this Key Skill needs you to write about how else you might have done this presentation. You need to compare creating computer generated presentation with another method maybe using a pen and pencil. The advantages and disadvantages of using IT  You need to list at least two advantages and two disadvantage of using IT to write the story. Example You might have used a pen and paper. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a pen and paper to write the story against using a computer?  You must make sure that you have covered both the advantages and the disadvantages. Example  Disadvantages might include cost of hardware software and peripherals or time spent learning how to use the programs needed to search, find and use information  The Importance of Copyright and Confidentiality  When it is necessary to observe copyright or confidentiality  You need to write a few lines about copyright what it is and how it affects you and the pictures you have found on the internet and CD/Clipart. You can present screen shots from the site showing copyright information or copies of emails sent and receiving permission to use graphics, text and photographs You can write about confidentiality what it is and how it does/does not affect you. You could refer to the lack of personal information and the fact that the Data Protection Act (1998) does not affect you.  Example  You have not used pictures of yourself or other young people which could identify them  Error Handling and Virus Protection  How to identify errors and their causes You will need to show, using screenshots, of errors and how to solve them. This can show the use of the office assistant, or searching for a web page that returns a not known error. It could be a picture of the spell check identifying a spelling error. How to minimise risks from viruses  You will need to provide a description of how to avoid getting viruses from floppy disks or from Internet downloads, including the purpose and use of virus checkers and how they prevent and remove a virus.  A couple of paragraphs are all that is required. Health and Safety Matters Work safely and take care of equipment, avoid losing information and know how to get help when dealing with errors  You will need to write a paragraph about:  Taking care of equipment e.g. storage of disks:  You must not put your disks near a magnet as this will delete the content, not throwing them around  Avoiding loss of information e.g. use of AutoSave or backup. Saving information onto disks as well as the account at school  Obtaining help e.g. on-line help, telephone support or teacher assistance.   I could not work out how to adjust the margins so I used the online help (screenshots here)  You need to show (through screenshots) that you have backed up your files. How to work safely and minimise health risks  You need to write a short paragraph about two health and two safety risks involved in using computers.  You may write about the use of anti-glare screens and taking a break from using the computer to rest your eyes or wrists. You may write about repetitive strain injuries from not having the correct keyboard and backache from not having the correct chair. Think about the rules in your computer room not drinking in a computer room, trailing cables or bags in the aisle.

Rawls Justice As Fairness Philosophy Essay

Rawls Justice As Fairness Philosophy Essay In this essay I will offer up a critique of Rawls difference principle I will draw out the advantages and problems of Rawls theory in relation to each end of the political spectrum; In a comparison with socialist thought by way of Cohen, and liberal thought by way of Nozick. In relation to Nozick I will initially set out his entitlement theory showing his criticisms of Rawlsian theory; I will go on to side with Rawls and show that Nozicks contrived stance of redistribution as an infringement to liberty and taxation as forced labour is clearly objectionable. Cohen looks to highlight inconsistencies in the Rawlsian theory, questioning, If you are an egalitarian, who come you are so rich? Cohen highlights the moral arbitrariness of Rawls incentives argument based on a moral basis of community values, and shows that a Pareto-improving equality-preserving redistribution can exist; for the most part the two desiderata can co-exist. To show this I will firstly, give a brief overview of Rawl s Theory of Justice. Secondly, I will focus on the difference principle itself for deeper analysis. Thirdly, I will explore a right wing objection to Rawls; examining Robert Nozick and his work, Anarchy, State and Utopia. Fourthly, I will explore a left wing objection to Rawls; examining G. A. Cohen and his work, Rescuing Justice and Equality. Finally, I will concludeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Rawls Justice as Fairness Aristotle envisioned the ingredients of a theory of justice; he held that it is the job of a good political arrangement to provide each and every person with what they need to become capable of living rich and flourishing human lives.  [1]  In contrast Rawls takes justice to be the first virtue of social institutions.  [2]  Rawls set himself the task of establishing what moral principles should govern the basic structure of just society.  [3]  Taking influence from the Social Contract tradition  [4]  Rawls wants us to examine the question from a hypothetical standpoint; asserting that we can come to a rational decision on the principles of justice if we chose them from an original position, behind a veil of ignorance.  [5]  These are two central ideas at the heart of Rawls theory of justice, which he refers to as justice as fairness. Justice for Rawls is the hypothetical contract that would emerge from this thought experiment; in depriving people of particularizin g knowledge people will rationally chose fair principles rather than allowing that knowledge to bias the choice of principles in their own interest.  [6]  The intuitive idea is the link between fairness and ignorance. If I do not know which piece of cake I am going to get, I am more likely to cut fairly than if I do.  [7]  From the range of conceptions of justice available to them the rational choice of persons in the original position would be the two principles which comprise justice as fairness. The first principle requires equality in the assignment of basic liberties (rights and duties).  [8]  The second principle is concerned with social and economic inequalities, and itself has two parts: the principle of fair equality of opportunity, which has priority over, the difference principle; which holds that social and economic inequalities are just only if they maximise the benefit of the least advantaged members of society.  [9]   All social primary goods liberty and opportunity, income and wealth, and the bases of self-respect are to be distributed equally unless an unequal distribution of any or all of these goods is to the advantage of the least favoured.  [10]   Taken together these mean that a just society will, first and most important, give each of its members the same set of basic liberties or rights: freedom of expression, of religion, of association, of economic inequalities, it will make sure that all citizens enjoy equality of opportunity in the process by which they come to achieve (and avoid) the unequally rewarded positions. Finally, it will only allow such inequalities at all if they tend, over time to maximise the position of the worst-off members of society. The central idea behind Rawlss principles seems clear enough: the output or earnings of a practice is to be distributed equally, unless some pattern of unequal distribution can, in the manner sketched above, be made to work for everyones benefit, and provided that everyone has a shot at the better-paid roles. The Difference Principle Rawls acknowledges that inequality is a natural occurrence but like many natural things which civilized society overcomes for the greater-good it is also possible that society can narrow the gaps of inequality. Rawls states, The natural distribution is neither just nor unjust; nor is it just that persons are born into society at some particular positions à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ these are simply natural facts. What is just and in just is the way that institutions deal with these facts.  [11]   He believed the best to contrive a just society is to raise the expectations of those worst-off off members. Rawls does not want a meritocracy and therefore does not believe in wages for ones deserts. Firstly, because there is no way in defining the requisite criteria of deservedness in the original position; secondly, it fails to distinguish between moral desert and legitimate expectation. He saw that success was mostly a result of economic and social serendipity; the work that someone put into their success was not the element that made people deserve high income as the opportunity to succeed is effectively impossible without society. Therefore, society deserves the reward for having enabled you to succeed at all. Additionally talents you are born with should not permit you to command an excessive reward for your lottery success (For instance great singers or sport stars). Even the willingness to make an effort, to try, and so to be deserving in the ordinary sense is itself dependent upon happy family and social circumstances.  [12]   Rawls therefore believed that people ought to be paid enough to give them an incentive to work and enough for them to also give back to society (for instance via tax) but preferably in more direct means as he did not believe in the trickle down system. With this approach he is not compensating those naturally less fortunate for their bad luck nor limiting the gifted from monopolising all their good luck, there can be a great income disparity between people but this must be reflected in the benefit of the worst off. He states, Injustice, then, is simply inequalities that are not to the benefit off all.  [13]  To conclude it seems evident that the second principle is simply about wealth and the redistribution of it so that it benefits society as a whole. Nozick Anarchy, State and Utopia Nozick rejects that inequalities must serve, over time, maximally to promote the well-beings of the least advantaged members of society. Conversely he defends the idea of the minimal state promoting a principle of self-ownership that leaves people free to do what they like with property that is theirs; a principle that could justify extreme inequality.  [14]  Nozick asserts that; the logic that leads you to restrict the economic liberties in the way that you do, should also lead you to restrict civil liberties in ways that you dont want to restrict them. Essentially egalitarian liberalism rendered internally consistent yields classical liberalism.  [15]  Hence, Nozick looks to apply the liberal principles that go against state enforcement (i.e. freedom of speech, free association, free immigration) to economic principles.  [16]  Nozick explains by way of analogy:  [17]  if I were to decide I did not want to conform to a societal system of taxation and redistributive j ustice and I were not to use any of the benefits that came from it, (i.e. social welfare, education, health care, etc.), could the state force myself to stay within its borders and force myself to conform to the societal system? He arbitrarily points out that this would be morally wrong, going against the principle of free immigration, infringing your liberty. However, what if I was again to opt out of the same system of taxation and remain in the county, by way of a contractual agreement with the government whereby I never have to pay tax but can never consume any tax provisions. Would this be just? Are we slaves to the state? In applying the same uncontroversial liberal principles to economics Nozick is highlighting the fact that taxation and redistribution of wealth infringes our liberty, restricting our free choice to conform or not to the wishes of the government. Any distribution of wealth can be just if it came about by peoples free choices. He criticises end-state and patterned theories such as Rawls theory of distributive justice, as focusing on the moment, looking at things are now not how things came about. In contrast to his own historical principles; what really matters is not who has what, but how they got it; to be just in economic terms is to have a clean history, on the basis of mutual agreement and voluntary consent. Nozick gives us the analogy of Wilt Chamberlin to extrapolate his claims:  [18]  he asks us to Specify an initial distribution which we feel is legitimate, and then argues that we intuitively prefer his principle of transfer to liberal principles of redistribution as an account of what people can legitimately do with their resources.  [19]   Wilt Chamberlin (a talented basketball player) arrives in town; he agrees to play a game of basketball, fans can watch for the charge of $1.25, with 25 cents going directly to Wilt. This agreement in entered into voluntarily by all willing participants. Suppose now half the population of the town were to agree to the proposed contract and were willing to pay money to see Wilt play, and half the population were not. Wilt Chamberlin stands to earn a substantial amount of money from the voluntary contractual agreement in return for his service (playing a game of basketball). This Nozick points out that this voluntary agreement disrupts the perfect pattern of redistribution. Wealth would no longer be distributed equally for example, and if justice is about achieving a certain pattern or end then the post Wilt distribution is un-just as it will no longer fit the pattern or end. However, that is counter intuitive if the post Wilt distribution is unjust how exactly did the injustice creep i n, so who exactly was treated unfairly in this case? If distribution justice is about achieving some ideal pattern or end, like equality or utility maximisation, where exactly does the injustice arise in the Wilt Chamberlin case? Nozick clearly thinks that no injustice has taken place in this case and his historical principle does a good job of explaining why. Every transfer of wealth in the example takes place on mutually acceptable terms so the fans agree to watch Wilt play for an extra quarter and Wilt agrees to play in exchange for the promised reward; the final distribution of wealth is perfectly just because it came about as a result of just processes. Liberty will upset any pattern or end-state achieved by the interventionist state. To then remedy/restore the pattern or outcome the state would have to continually interfere in our lives. In effect income tax to fund redistribution is forced labour; it gives the poor and needy partial ownership in wage earners.  [20]   Nozicks argument, then, is that to enforce a pattern of redistribution of wealth restricts liberty. A certain picture of what it would be like to enforce a pattern is implied: constant surveillance to make sure on one gets too much or too little, and constant intrusions either to prohibit or to rectify the effects of pattern-breaking transactions. Here Nozick is guilty of a gross exaggeration; he treats all patterned theories of distribution as rigid, when actually, as in the case of Rawls theory, in enforcing a weak pattern it does restrict peoples liberty to a certain extent, but it would be a gross exaggeration to suggest that this infringement was as serious as Nozick maintains.  [21]  In relation to a Rawlsian approach to distributive justice: inequalities are only permissible only in so far as they improve the position of the worst-off. Would the institutions of taxation and welfare benefits really constitute constant interference?  [22]  Nozicks objection can only be t o hold that they do infringe on our liberty, as much that would constitute a rejection of any meddling in ones own affairs. Rawls would hold that: in the trade-off of values, small losses of privacy and liberty are acceptable in exchange for a great deal of poverty alleviation. Thus, redistribution from the better-off to the worse-off, by means of taxation appears not to involve a serious assault on liberty.  [23]   To really know what infringes liberty we would need to go down the road of philosophical analysis to define and construe the intricate working of the notion. To highlight his cause Nozick tries to assert that income taxation is in effect forced labour; a notion which clearly involves an unacceptable violation of liberty. Taking the earnings of n hours labour is like taking n hours from the person.  [24]  To extrapolate on this claim Nozick suggests that the income taxation system unfairly discriminates against people with expensive tastes. As demonstrated by the following analogy: consider the enjoyments of two differing individuals; one enjoys the pleasure of an evening at the theatre, the other takes enjoyment from a country walk. The former will have to work, to earn money to pay for the pleasure, while the latter gains pleasure at no cost to themselves. These poor unfortunates have to pay for their tastes and pleasures, as well as being forced to contribute to the needy, wher eas those who get their pleasure for free are not so required.  [25]  Hence, Nozick suggests that we are discriminating against those with expensive tastes making then work even harder to lead a satisfied pleasurable life. This contrived stance by Nozick is clearly objectionable, forced labour rarely includes the option of deciding how much labour to do. Further, most people have a measure of choice as to the nature of the activity at which they work, and who in particular employs them. This hardly constitutes forced labour.  [26]   Nozick points to specific cases and instances, he is looking for the exception rather than focusing on the rule, he seems to be side-stepping the debate by focusing on the extremes trying to detract from Rawls theory, every theory will have flaws but that does not necessary mean it is not just or worthwhile. Nozicks radical views do encourage debate but do not stand up to Rawls stance; although it would be unfair if tastes were as fixed as eye or skin colour, in fact tastes and pleasures are developed against a range of costs and expectations, so those with expensive tastes are likely to have formed and maintained those tastes knowing them to be expensive.  [27]   Socialist critique Cohen Cohen in Rescuing Justice and Equality literally looks to rescue equality from Rawls incentives argument, that in respect to the difference principle; to ensure high level of productivity is maintained by the better-off members of society, in order to benefit the worse-off, inequalities in wealth are justified as incentives. Cohen is critical of Rawls argument, albeit conceding that incentives may abate suffering; in no way can they formulate justice. This is because such a formulation, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ presupposes a model of society as a non-community, in which relations among human beings are construed as strategic, with people taking one another into account as so many opportunities for, and obstacles to, gain, rather than as fellow citizens by whom they can be asked to justify the way they live.  [28]   Rawls is guilty of a fundamental inconsistency in his conception: Cohen asserts that incentives are only necessary because of the attitudes and choices made by the better-off, more talented citizens. These attitudes and choices are inconsistent, if like Rawls, we assume that the talented support the difference principle and actually want to maximize the position of the worst-off in society. Cohen questions: if youre an egalitarian, how come youre so rich?  [29]   [C]ommunity, or as Rawls denominates it, fraternity, is an important value for Rawls, and one that he claims to be not only consistent with but illustrated by the incentive rationale that I criticizeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦[T]he manner in which Rawls applies the difference principle, in his endorsement of incentives inequality, represents abandonment of that very principle.  [30]   Cohen claims that no reasonable account of distributive justice can go through on the assumption that justice pertains only to political structures narrowly conceived because it necessarily involves the conduct of persons in relation to one another in the family and in the full ethical dimensions of life.  [31]   These issues worry Cohen as well as other critics of A Theory of Justice too. There appears to be a conflict between Rawls reasons for saying that justice demands an initial equality of primary goods for all and his argument justifying a move away from equality to a situation where primary goods are unequally distributed.  [32]  Rawls maintains that there is an obvious starting-point when considering a just distribution of primary goods. This starting-point is equality of all such goods. The natural distribution of talents is morally arbitrary, so there is no reason why the talented should be rewarded more than the untalented in the initial situation. However, Rawls also maintains that it is irrational to stick with an equal division of primary goods if it is possible to better the circumstances of everyone, even the untalented, by permitting the talented to enjoy greater rewards than the rest: Imagine, then, a hypothetical initial argument in which all the social primary goods are equally distributed: everyone has similar rights and duties, and income and wealth are evenly shared. This state of affairs provides a benchmark for judging improvements. If certain inequalities of wealth and organizational powers would make everyone better off than in this hypothetical situation, then they accord with the general conception [of justice].  [33]   Here, in a nutshell, is what Cohen calls the Pareto argument for inequality. Starting from equality, a movement to a position of inequality is justifiable so long as everyone benefits from it. Rawls does not see a movement away from equality as entirely compatible with distributional justice. A movement away from equality may be justified if everybody gains from it.  [34]  The value judgement which is relevant to this argument is the weak Pareto principle; if a change is beneficial for everyone then it is a change for the better. This can be viewed in contrast to the strong Pareto principle; if a change is beneficial for at least one person and worse for nobody then it is a change for the better. The Pareto argument, as interpreted by Cohen, assumes that Rawls is appealing to the weak Pareto principle; to justify a movement away from the benchmark of equality.  [35]  Cohen focuses on the initial situation of equality of primary goods as an initial situation. He adds the presumption that there are only two relevant groups, the talented and the un-talented, each group apply the same degree of effort and application. Consequently the talented, by virtue of their talent, produce more than the un-talented, for no extra reward. Some people would regard this as unfair, but in the argument for baseline equality Rawls has treated peoples initial endowments of talent as morally arbitrary and therefore as not meriting extra reward.  [36]   Then, in this original situation both groups receive, and deserve the same wage. However, if a Pareto change is possible, that in moving to a new situation, output would be increased to the benefit of all. If the talented were to apply themselves to a greater extent, increasing output for the reward of a higher wage. The effort and the output of the untalented remains the same but their wage rate also increases but remains less than that of the talented. Thus, everyone benefits from the new situation. The change, Cohen argues, is one which must be endorsed by the Pareto argument.  [37]  The inequality in the second situation is justified by the fact that all benefit in contrast with their original position. Hence, so by the weak Pareto principle it would be irrational for anyone to resist the change. However, Cohen hypothesis a third even more improved situation which would triumph over the unequal situation that arose by way of the first Pareto change. This new situation involves the same characteristics as the second, bar the wage rate would be the same for both the talented and un-talented groups; the talented still working to their maximum capabilities, but now they do not receive extra benefit (incentive) while the un-talented receive even more than in the second situation. Cohen argues that the talented could have no reasonable objection for working to their potential for no extra reward then there would be no need to introduce any inequalities in primary goods.  [38]   Rawls claim about the irrationality of insisting on equality in the face of a Pareto- superior inequality would lose its force, since a Pareto-improving equality-preserving move, in which no one is as badly off as some are in the second situation, would now also be available.  [39]   The obvious objection to this is that it would be unfair to the talented. However, Cohen insists that this argument is inconsistent to Rawls theory as a whole. If in the original situation it was right to discount talent as being morally arbitrary, then this should be applied to the present situation and throughout his whole theory. If in the first situation the talented would have been accused of exploiting morally arbitrary advantages if they had objected to the equality of the situation. Even in the second situation, it is hard to see why an egalitarian should be expected to regard what they then do as acceptable, even if nothing can be done about it.  [40]   In short, Cohen wishes to assess Rawls move from a situation of equality to one of inequality and incentives by reference to a feasible Pareto improvement, a new improved situation, which would preserve equality. If this new situation is not feasible for objective reasons, reasons independent of the attitudes of the talented, then Cohen will regard the second situation as acceptable. However, he thinks that such cases are unlikely. Hence Rawls does not have to choose between inequality and taking advantage of Pareto changes. For the most part the two desiderata can co-exist.  [41]   Conclusion John Rawls Theory of Justice is widely held to be a primary liberal egalitarian solution to a problem that has been debated over by philosophers and politicians since the time of the ancient Greeks. The problem: of how to organise a just and fair society that allows it citizens to live full and flourishing lives. Rawls offers us a theory that provides us with functioning equality in exchange for minimal inequalities in the form of incentives. This focus on wealth is the downfall of the Rawlsian theory; do we really need incentive to value equality and understand the needs of our fellow humans? Cohens emphasis on community and understanding allows for a more equal morally responsible society, one in which allows each and every citizen to work and live according to their own capabilities, and one due to the emphasis on community allowing equality of opportunity to all. These conditions allow and would satisfy Aristotles criteria of becoming capable of living rich and flourishing human lives.

Galileo Galilei And His Impact Theology Religion Essay

Galileo Galilei And His Impact Theology Religion Essay Galileo Galilei was a pioneer of modern science during a time period that revolved around religion, causing the great debate of religion versus science. His effect on his time period changed how people thought about the world and introduced science to everyone, rather than just the wealthy. His lasting accomplishments have made him one of the most influential scientists in world history. He made astounding discoveries in astronomy, mathematics, and physics; many of which are still used today. Galileo Galilei was born in Pisa, Italy in 1564. He was born to a noble family but had financial struggles which his father, an accomplished lutenist, tried to fix by giving music lessons (Fermi, 1996). Galileo had displayed an exemplary ability to learn at an early age, and his father decided that Galileo should attend the University of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany (Fermi, 1996). During his time at school, Galileo became interested in natural processes and science, and his life as one of the most renowned scientists ever had begun. During the 16th and 17th centuries when Galileo lived, the Scientific Revolution was slowly gaining more influence. The revolution began with Nicolas Copernicus with his heliocentric ideas and ended with Sir Isaac Newton and the discovery of multiple natural laws (Hatch, 2002). The reason this explosion of scientific discovery was known as a revolution was due to the radical ideas that scientists had put forth in relation to the ideas the Church had established in Western civilization. Before the Scientific Revolution began, the general understanding of the world was solely based on religion. The Revolution allowed people to replace their religious belief with facts and reason. This was not an easy transition, however, because religion and science have opposing ideals and during the Scientific Revolution these ideals clashed. The Roman Catholic Church, the largest and most influential Christian Church throughout history, had massive influence in Western civilization in the 16th and 17th centuries. The Church dominated most of the Western social life as their interpretation of the bible was the only accepted explanation to natural occurrences in the world (Hatch, 2002). Most scientific theories at the time were proposed by theologians, and all science that was taught was through the texts of these theologians and was universally accepted as true (Newall, 2005). Aristotle and Ptolemy were also referenced heavily in the Church. Church influence had begun to wane early in the 1500s, however, because of the Protestant Revolution and the rise of scientific theories proposed by scientists. These scientists, such as Nicolaus Copernicus and Galileo Galilei, had done experiments and discovered that their results didnt match up with the Churchs results. This led to a conflict between scientific and theological scien ce (Newall, 2005). The beginning of the differences between accepted scientific laws given by the Church and the actual scientists began with the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus and his De Revolutionibus, a book that explained that the earth revolved around the sun. Copernicus was timid about publishing the book because it went against almost 1400 years of the belief that the earth was the center of the universe, and the sun revolved around it (Fermi, 1996). Unfortunately for Copernicus, his book was very difficult to understand and did not gain any popularity. The small group of scientists that could understand Copernicus book would usually lecture about it, as it proposed more factual evidence as opposed to the theological teachings (Fermi, 1996). These scientists who agreed with Copernicus were known as Copernicans, and sought to spread his ideas. One of the most prominent Copernicans was Galileo Galilei. Before Galileo began his research on the Copernican Theory, he conducted experiments on laws of motion. Galileo was taught Aristotelian science, which was very inaccurate at the time. Galileo believed that Aristotles theory that objects fall according to their weight was false, so he publicly demonstrated an experiment where he dropped a large ball and a small ball from the Leaning Tower of Pisa, noting that they landed at about the same time (Drake, 1980). Galileo states the difference in his experiment and Aristotles in his book De Motu (meaning On Motion), stating Aristotle says that a hundred-pound ball falling from a height of a hundred cubits hits the ground before a one-pound ballà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ I say they arrive at the same time. You find, on making the test, that the larger ball beats the smaller one by two inchesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Speaking only of my tiny error, remain silent about his enormous mistake (Drake, 1980). Galileo called this the Law of Falling Bodies, stating that objects fall with the same acceleration (Drake, 1980). This was the precursor to Isaac Newtons first law of motion, which is still accepted today. Galileo made other great strides in physics and mathematics before he moved onto different subjects in science. Galileo has shown his mathematical skill when he created his military compass, or sector. This sector consisted of two rulers and an axis, and was used for many mathematical calculations (Fermi 1996). The sector was able to do many mathematical problems similar to our calculators today. During the sixteenth century, when there were many wars going on, it was especially helpful in military situations, such as figuring the formation of an army, the weight and arc of a cannonball, or the incline of certain environments (Fermi, 1996). This led to the sector being known as the military compass. In the early 1600s Galileo became interested in the invention of the early magnifying glass. He attempted to make his own version of the magnifying glass, and according to Stillman Drake (1996), he reasoned that one of the two lenses must be convex and the other concave, and on fitting such a spectacle lenses in a lead tube he found that it worked (pg. 46). His first magnifying glass was powerful enough to see ships approaching a couple of hours before they could be seen by the naked eye (Drake, 1980). After many hours of grinding and experimenting with different lenses, Galileo was able to create the first telescope. With his telescope, which was incredibly powerful for the time period, Galileo began his career as an astronomer. In May of 1609, Galileo used his telescope to look at the moon. He discovered that, contrary to everyones belief, the moon had mountains and craters all over it. Soon by January 1610, he had improved his telescope to be able to see Jupiter. Galileo noticed objects revolving around Jupiter and discovered them as moons (Shea, 2003). This was a huge step for Galileo in proving that the earth revolved around the sun and that the earth had a moon that revolved around it. After Galileo made his discovery, he published an article, saying: Here we have a powerful and elegant argument to remove the doubts of those who accept without difficulty that the planets revolve around the sun in the Copernican system, but are so disturbed to see the Moon alone revolve around the earth while accompanying it in its annual revolution about the Sunà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ our eyes show us four stars that wander around Jupiter, as does the Moon around the earth and these stars together with Jupiter describe a large circle around the Sun in a period of twelve years. (Shea, 1993) As Galileo observed the skies more frequently, he made more discoveries that proved Copernicanism was correct. While he made these discoveries, the Church had begun to persecute Galileo. Galileos work was censored by the Church while he published, so many of his studies werent completely published. The reason that Galileo was persecuted as opposed to other scientists before him was because of his ability to write in common Italian (as opposed to Latin) in a popular tone. This allowed everyone from scientists to bakers to read his works, and his works became immensely popular and were translated into several languages (Fermi, 1996). Because these works were so popular, it weakened the Churchs influence rapidly, forcing them to put Galileo under house arrest for the rest of his life. Galileo lived almost 400 years ago, but his contributions to science and astronomy have made a lasting impression on our world today. His creation of the telescope and his studies of the universe completely revolutionized how we view space, and without him it might have taken longer for mankind discover the earth revolves around the sun. Galileo was also able to make great strides in physics, such as discovering that everything that falls will fall at a uniform rate. Many people credit Newton with discovering this law of physics as it is stated as Newtons First Law of Motion, but Galileo was the one responsible for creating the first experiments to prove the law true. Galileo was also one of the first scientists to take a stand against theological thinking and promote scientific evidence, which is still a conflict that exists today. Considering Galileos accomplishments throughout his life, he is one of the most important and influential scientists in world history.

Politics of Muscle :: essays research papers

â€Å"The Politics of Muscle† by Gloria Steinem is an essay arguing the difference in strength between men and women. Steinem starts her essay by stating how she grew up in a generation where women didn’t participate in a lot, if any, sport activities. She goes on to say that she believes this is the reason why women of her generation believe that it’s not what the female body does, but how it looks. Steinem feels that women always seemed to be owned in some degree as the means of reproduction. She believes that women are made to feel ashamed of their strength and that â€Å"only when women rebel against patriarchal standards does female muscle become more accepted.† (pg 372)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I think that Steinem’s intended audience is primarily for all women. I feel she wrote this because she feels strongly about how the power of women is viewed versus the power of how men are viewed. I think her primary purpose is to speak to women and to get them to realize how much of an impact increasing our physical strength could have on our everyday lives. Steinem wants to let it be known that women are not objects and that having muscles and strength can in fact be feminine.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I agree with the author that society does view women as the weaker sex. I also believe that it is true that some of the more athletic woman today are not always viewed as being as beautiful as the skinny models in the magazines. However, I don’t agree with her thoughts regarding women being possessions and how she thinks women’s bodies are symbols of men’s status. That could very well be true in other cultures, as she does state in her essay that there are many cultural differences. But for myself, growing up in the environment that I did, that is not something that I had ever really heard about or was witness to.

Anthrax Essay -- essays research papers

Anthrax Vaccine: Safe and Effective, or Not? Intro: The Anthrax vaccine is a mandatory shot for military; while some people are willing to take the shot to save their lives, others believe if they take it, it will ruin theirs. I. The Anthrax Disease   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A. Anthrax is a bacterial infection caused by Bacillus Anthracis.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1. It primarily affects livestock, but can occasionally spread humans.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  a. The infection can be treated, but is almost always fatal.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2. The bacterium produces spores that lay dormant for years in soil and on   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   animal products.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  B. There are three different ways to contract this disease.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1. Cutaneous anthrax is the mildest of the disease.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  a. It is contracted through a cut on the skin.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2. Inhalation anthrax is a rare and fatal form of the disease.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  a. This form of anthrax is usually fatal, even if treated, resulting in   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   fatality   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  3. Another rare and fatal form of the disease is intestinal anthrax.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  a. It is caused by eating meat of an animal that has died of anthrax. Transition: Now that you know what causes the disease lets talk about the vaccine. II. The Anthrax Vaccination   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A. The vaccine was developed in the 1950’s and 60’s and approved by the FDA in   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   the 1970’s.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1. The vaccine is a cell- free filtrate, produced from a strain of anthrax that   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  ... ...  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  evidence that it protects against inhaled anthrax.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  B. I this case the vaccine cannot b given to service members   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  without informed consent except during an emergency. Transition: Now that you have heard about the vaccine’s downfall, lets review everything Conclusion: We now know that anthrax is a fatal bacterium that can be contracted without your knowing. We also know that the vaccine can protect you. It has been tested since 1965, because it is the leading biological agent for germ warfare. We also know that it had a lower number of adverse effects in comparison with 3 other vaccines. Even with all that, there are still reasons why some won’t take the vaccine, like a lack of testing. It hasn’t been tested to see if it causes cancer, infertility, or even protects you from inhaled anthrax. Both arguments can end with the same statement, â€Å"I don’t want to get anthrax,† The question is what you are willing to risk to save yourself.

The power of social media in political communication

Research Question To determine the impact of social media on the way that political institutions and organizations communicate to the public including the unintended impact of social media on political communication. Research Objective The track the evolution of social media use in political communication both as intended by those disseminating the information and the unintended impact of having such assessable communication methods for the general public. Significance and Context of Research Increasingly in political communication, social media has been used as a primary method of disseminating information, gathering information and testing public opinion. Indeed certain countries continue to use these methods as a primary means of lobbying support. However, not only does it present enormous benefit to political organizations, it also presents a unique opportunity to the public combating abuse of power and an increased awareness and accountability. Some research even goes as far as to suggest that the impact of social media has enhanced the citizen participation in democracy increasing the commitment thereto. In the age of social media as a primary means of communication, the role and impact of this on political communication is boundless and significant. Methodology The primary method of research will be the analysis of different systems of social media usage. There is some literature written on the topic, examining different facets of the social media usage in political communication and this will serve as a useful indicator of the ways that social media is used in political communication. Thereafter, individual case studies on various methods that have been employed to great effect need to be examined. In other words, by examining how different political organizations have used social media to their advantage. The sources of these case studies will be evident in the literature written on the topic. How the organizations use social media and the effect that it has will be the primary focus of the research. The effect of social media usage will include the benefits on participation as well as the disadvantages relating to sensationalism and accuracy. References Clay Shirky (2011) ‘The Political Power of Social Media’ Foreign Affairs, 90(1), p28-41 Erik Qualman (2009) ‘How Social Media Transforms the Way We Live and Do Business’ [online] Available on http://www.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.uct.ac.za/uploads/corpLearn/pdf/bbs_socialnomics.pdf [Accessed on 7 July 2012] Erik C. Nisbet, Elizabeth Stoycheff, & Katy E. Pearce (2012) ‘Internet Use and Democratic Demands: A Multinational, Multilevel Model of Internet Use and Citizen Attitudes About Democracy’ Journal of Communication, 62, 249–265 Henry Farrell (2011) ‘The Internet’s Consequences for Politics’ [online] Available on http://crookedtimber.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/ARPS.pdf [Accessed on 7 July 2012] John C. Bertot, Paul T. Jaeger, Justin M. Grimes (2010) ‘Using ICTs to create a culture of transparency: E-government and social media as openness and anti-corruption tools for societies’ Government Inform ation Quarterly, 27, 264–271 Michael J. Magro, (2012) ‘A Review of Social Media Use in E-Government’ Sci., 2, 148-161 Wenfang Tang and Shanto Iyengar (2011) ‘ The Emerging Media System in China: Implications for Regime Change’ Political Communication, Special Issue [online] Available at http://myweb.uiowa.edu/wenftang/p/scanned%20publications/Tang%20and%20Iyengar%202011.pdf [Accessed on 7 July 2012]

Management Control System

Coca Cola Goes Small in India The coca-cola company is the number one seller of soft drinks in the world. Every day an average of more than 1 Billion servings of Coca-Cola, Diet Coke, Sprite, Fanta and other products of Coca-Cola are enjoyed around the world. The company has the world’s largest production and distribution system for soft drinks and sells more than twice as many soft drinks as its nearest competitor. Coca-Cola products are sold in more than 200 countries around the globe.For several reasons, the company believes it will continue to grow internationally. One reasons is that disposable income is rising Another reason is that outside the United States and Europe, the world is getting younger. In addition, reaching world markets is becoming easier as political barriers fall and transportation difficulties are overcome. Still another reason is that the sharing of ideas, cultures and news around the world creates market opportunities.Part of the company mission for C oca-Cola to maintain the world’s powerful trademark and effectively utilize the world’s most effective and pervasive distribution system. In June 1999 Coca-Cola India introduced a 200-milliliter Coke bottle in Delhi, India, in a campaign to market Coke to its poorest customers. This strategy was successful for Coca-Cola in other countries such as Russia. The bottle sells for Rs. 12, making affordable to almost everyone. In 2001, Coca-Cola enjoyed 25% growth in India including an 18% increase in unit case sales of Coca-Cola.Because of the variability of bottling machinery, it is likely that every 200 milliliter bottle of Coca-Cola does not contain exactly 200 milliliters of fluid. Some bottles may contain more fluid and other less. Because 200 milliliters fills are somewhat unusual, a production engineer wants to test some of the bottles from the first production runs to determine how closely they are to the 200 milliliter specification. Suppose the following data are t he field measurements from a random sample of 50 bottles.Consider the measures of central tendency, variation, skewness. Based on this analysis, explain how the bottling process working? 200. 1 200. 1 199. 7 200. 1 200. 4 199. 6 200. 1 200. 3 200. 2 200. 2199. 9 200. 9 200. 4 199. 4 199. 8 200. 4 200. 8 200. 5 200. 5 199. 5200. 2 200. 1 200. 3 199. 6 199. 9 200. 4 199. 9 199. 9 200. 2 200. 6200. 2 200. 3 199. 8 199. 2 200. 2 200. 6 200. 0 201. 1 199. 7 200. 3200. 0 200. 5 199. 3 200. 2 199. 6 200. 6 199. 9 199. 7 200. 9 199. 8 Management Control System Management Control System Assignment â€Å"Budgeting Preparation† * Budget Preparation Budget preparation is a summary of company's plans that sets specific targets for sales, production, distribution and financing activities. It generally culminates in a cash budget, a budgeted income statement, and a budgeted balance sheet. In short, this budget represents a comprehensive expression of management's plans for future and how these plans are to be accomplished. It usually consists of a number of separate but interdependent budgets. One budget may be necessary before the other can be initiated.More one budget estimate effects other budget estimates because the figures of one budget is usually used in the preparation of other budget. This is the reason why these budgets are called interdependent budgets. * Gudeline of Budget Preparation Operating Budgets An operating budget is a statement that presents the financial plan for each responsibility centre during the budget period and reflects operating activities involving revenues and expenses. The most common types of operating budgets are  expense,  revenue, and  profit budgets Expense BudgetAn expense budget is an operating budget that documents expected expenses during the budget period. Three different kinds of expenses normally are evaluated in the expense budget -fixed,  variable  and  discretionary  (Discretionary expenses – costs that depend on managerial judgment because they cannot be determined with certainty, for example:  legal fees, accounting fees  and  R&D expenses). Revenue Budget A revenue budget identifies the revenues required by the organization. It is a budget that  projects future sales. Profit Budget A profit budget combines both expense and revenue budgets into one statement to show  gross and net profits. Feature article about  Production ManagementProfit budgets are used to make  final resource allocation, check on the adequacy of expense budgets relative to anticipated revenues, control activities across units, and assign responsibility to managers for their shares of the organization's financial performance. Financial Budgets Financial Budgets outline how an organization is going to acquire its cash and how it intends to use the cash. Three important financial budgets are the  cash budget,  capital expenditure budget  and the balance sheet budget. Cash budget Cash budgets are forecasts of how much cash the organization has on hand and how much it will need to meet  expenses.The cash budget helps managers determine whether they will have adequate amounts of cash to handle required disbursements when necessary, when there will be excess cash that needs to be invested, and when cash flows deviate from budgeted amounts. Capital Expenditure Budget Capital Expenditure Budgets ,  Investment in property,  buildings and  major equipment  are called capital expenditure. Such capital expenditure budgets allow management to forecast capital requirements, to on top of important capital projects, and to ensure the adequate cash is available to meet these expenditures as they come due.The balance sheet budget The balance sheet budget plans the amount of  assets  and liabilities  for the end of the time period under considerations. A balance sheet budget is also known as a  pro forma (projected) balance sheet. Analysis of the balance sheet budget may suggest problems or opportunities that will require managers to alter some of the other budgets * Budgeting Process * Behavioral Aspects Actually, an effective budget preparation process blends the two approaches. Budgetees prepare the first draft of the budget for their area of responsibility, they do so within guideliness established at higher level.Senior managers review and critique these proposed budgets. Research has shown that budget preparation where the process in which the budgetee is both involved and has influence over the setting of budget amounts and it has positive effects on managerial motivation for two reasons : 1. There is likely to be greater acceptance of budget goals if they are perceived as being under managers’ personal control, rather than being imposed externally. This will leads to higher personal commitment to achieve the goals. 2. Participative budgeting result in effective information exchanges.The approved budget amounts benefit from the expertise and personal knowledge of the budgetees, where the budgetees have a clearer understanding of their jobs through interactions with superior during the review and approval phase. The budget department has a particularly difficult in behavioral problem. It must analyze the budgets in details, and it must be certain that the budget are prepared properlu and that the information is accurate. To accomplis h the tasks, the budget department sometimes must act in ways that line managers perceive as threatening or hostile.To perform, their function effectively, the members of the budget department must have a reputation for impartiality and fairness. If they do not have this reputation, it becomes difficult, if not impossible, for them to perform the task necessary to maintaining the effective budgetary control system. Citation Anthony, R. N. , ; Govindarajan, V. (2007). Behavioral Aspects. In Management Control System (pp. 391-393). New York: McGraw-Hill. How to Prepare Budget. (n. d. ). Retrieved November 02, 2012, from CWA – Communication Workers of America: